GREAT, NOT ALWAYS GREAT AND RARE PHILOSOPHICAL TERMS, LOGIC, ETHICS, MORALS EXPLAINED BY: JAN PAUL LUBEK, BD, Phd --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Philosophy and psychology almost go hand in hand. They are connected in many ways but still separate scientific fields. First, there was philosophy and the word was made reality, from it came everything; all the knowledge, sciences, things evolved over time. Both philosophy and psychology require deep thinking, analytical skills, good sound judgment, critical thinking. Both can follow scientific methods and logic is their main uniting agent, the ground they stand on. Excluding physics, philosophers in our times still retain the old scholastic division of philosophy into logic, metaphysics, ethics, values. In its earliest speculative period, psychological study was chiefly embodied in philosophical and theological discussions of the soul. Psychology as a science spans many fields of knowledge, from philosophy and anthropology to biochemistry and artificial intelligence, and asks, 'What is the nature of human nature?' - Psychology follows philosophical pattern, logical way in terms of: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism... Quantum theory of learning. The quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. Constructivism builds upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that accepts multiple perspectives and maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world. Cognitive approaches have a place in constructivism, since constructivism the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience. Perhaps the greatest difference is evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation is much more subjective. Let's say when negotiating evaluations objective evaluation should be included ? That is not behavioral and cognitive strategy a part of constructivism ? The learning theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the atomic theory used, depends upon the learning situation. The bohr atom is ofen used to introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to students. May be behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum" constructivism is better situated to advanced learning situations. So, everything is connected to each other and follows a certain (evolutionary) order. Something which is proven to be good or corrects builds on each other, usually the concept remains unchanged. - MASS psychology governs a crowd, the change of regime is a mass psychology... When somebody has to go against a political system or tradition or just be an adversary, the others will hate them because if they dont the new system or others will punish them... So nothing really has been accomplished. Human fear, peer pressure, negative influences must be eradicated/destroyed in order to find the truth. My observation with peer pressure is that people tend to act the way they do when they are associates with their group, even if it is wrong, they do not want to show they are different from others, many times doing that is wrong. Same thing happens in government with pre-emptive unilateral attacks on innocent/defenseless countries. American 'coalition' invasion claimed they are better off but majority disagreed, about 20% said they were glad and better off and were glad there were no more Baathists but many of them said that because of fear, consequences. Similar situation was before the war, but vice-versa... If you said something wrong about Saddam or Baathists, you were in trouble and you had to pretend to like them. The war itself was never justified and the sanctios brought nothing but misery & deaths to the masses, even to future generations. There's no excuse, war crminals George Bush, Dick Cheney, Donald Rumsfeld, Paul Wolfovitz should get the death penalty. -------------------- - Psychology... you can learn and understand it by observattion and thought alone... but Philosophy... you must learn it, experience and read a lot to get some full understanding on many different topics. There are many authors, many differences, divisions, time eras, etc... But there can only be few formulas for understanding... The one that holds for a long time and that is accepted by majority ( or minority in some cases when proven over time), when it's true to you, when it's understood by all people and cultures around the world, then it is solid. However... Nothing is perfect nor understood 100%... As time goes by ideas, systems, methods and truth behind it may change... but one thing always remains constant... The original roots philosophy came from. After all... the more you change, add on or take away from it, it leads to garbage and confusion and philosophy then looses its charm and power. A true philosopher must know how to improve it and build on it. Not to divide it or create a lie and get dead end out of it. INTROVERSION (together with uniting Wittgenstein thoughts on both philosophy and psychology) is one of the few terms in psychology and philosophy where one and the other unite... - A propensity for finding one's satisfaction in the inner life of thoughts. - The direction of or tendency to direct one's thoughts & ffeelings toward oneself only. Module - Faculty; inherent cognitive, perceptual powers of mind. Psychology - The science of mental life. Psychologist - A scientist trained in psychology. Psychiatrist - A physician who specializes in psychiatry, can prescribe anti nutty medication. Psychiatry - The branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. Mental Models - Meanings you automatically construct on somebody or something in your mind from information you receive through multiple sensory inputs (+over time) - Thought processes for how something works in the real worrld. Mental Image - A picture of an object not visually present but stored and/or produced in mind by memory or imagination. - You cant always help yourself, not even the best psychiattrist could help itself if it does not have motivational support and understanding of a friend, associate or another caring person who really understands, is not there just for the money, who can assist especially in deep psychological depression. Joyful, peaceful self-fulfilling surroundings are must. - Lubek 7/2007 ---------------------------------------------------------- - They say philosophy does not bring money... What ? How many people's lifes have been improved through it ? How much change did it bring to the world over centuries ? How many inovations did it create, it all sprung from it, including all the sciences. methods, systems, analysis and everything around. If case be right it differentiates between good and bad, right and wrong. - Wisdom (erudious, profound knowledge at times, only somettimes accumulated knowledge), Knowledge and Intelligence go together, hand in hand... but once you no more than are 17 or more you should have some life experience and knowledge what life is all about and most of all have some form of wisdom but that does not make you wiser or smarter than people of the past (especially) or of the future, it's all in the action, approach and resolution to the problem for that situation or a group of problems in the same category, at a given time, in a given place, in certain, particular situation. 17 or 107 it does not matter alwyas, the only thing that matters is sound judgment made on time... See more on this I wrote in my other quotes. Philosophy- To Love and practice of Wisdom. The pursuit of wisdom. - A search for a general understanding of values and realitty by observational or experimented means, an analysis of the grounds of and concepts expressing fundamental beliefs. A theory underlying or regarding a sphere of activity or thought... as . ------------------------- According to Aristotle all laws are in some sense just (not), every party, defendent or plaintiff may have some valid legal points, legal protected interests but only to a certain point... Any law is better than no law, then again that depands if that is a just law, which transcends the time and the boundaries of the universe... Yet to be truly just a law must be in accordance with natural justice. A problem with laws is that they need to be formulated in an intrinsic, universal, understanding way. And thus not to be able to take particulars of each situation. Judiciar system, pathetic judges should wake up and make up for these shortcomings in the faulty laws by basing their decisions not necessarily on what the law actually says and on its technicalities but on the reasoning behind the laws and why were they made in the first place !?! - Lubek Viaticum - The Holy Eucharist and or annointing of the sick aka the last rights as given to a person near or in danger of death by a priest. Technocratic - Form of government in which scientists and technical experts are in control, similar to Socratic idea that only philosophers should be in power. Intrinsic - Belonging to a thing by its very nature. The essence of the thing. Extrinsic - External or a cause coming from outside. Transcendence - God is independent and different from his creatures. He transcendts his creation. Transcedental - Existing apart from matter, that which is beyond our senses and experience but not beyond all human knowledge. Knowledge - Known: thru perception, reasoning, intuition (instincitive knowledge). Cognition - The mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, judgment. Hypothesis - A tentative theory about the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena. - A message expressing an opinion based on incomplete evideence. Conjecture - (similar to hypothesis but not as strong as a theory) A hypothesis that has been formed by speculating or conjecturing (usually with little hard evidence). - A message expressing an opinion based on incomplete evideence. Theory - A well-substantiated explanation (with some prove but inconclusive, stronger than hypot) of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena. The Rat Race - An exhaustive competitive routine that leaves no time for reality. -Philosophy Kinds: - According to St. Albertus Magnus (Best teacher of Saint Thomas Aquinas) philosophy is either contemplative or practical. CONTEMPLATIVE philosophy embraces philosophical psychology (Lubek), mathematics and metaphysics; PRACTICAL (moral) philosophy is monastic (for the individual), DOMESTIC (for the family), or POLITICAL (for the state or society). Excluding physics, philosophers in our times still retain the old scholastic division of philosophy into logic, metaphysics, ethics, values. - Fuzzy Logic - A branch of logic designed to allow degreess of imprecision in reasoning & knowledge. (including original natural philosophy) Logic - A science that deals with the principles and criteria of validity of demonstration and analyzes inference. - Reasoned and reasonable judgment, a system or reasoning. The science of the formal principles of reasoning. Adverbs like 'hence' make the conclusion look right... (used to introduce a logical conclusion) from that/the fact or reason or as a result. -Philosophy deals with questions; Logic - Argues it !!! -According to St. Albert Magnus (the teacher of St. Thomas Aquinas): LOGIC was a preparation for philosophy teaching; how we should use reason in order to pass from the known to the unknown. Panglosian Argument - As in: "This is the best of all possible worlds." Panglossian - Naively optimistic THE VALIDITY OF LOGIC is independent of the assumption of validity of any of its supposed laws. If logic is not valid, the reasoning is also not valid and the conclusion can not be drawn as true or false. It can only be probable at best. Moderate Realism 1250's- A doctrine by Doctorus Universalus St. Albertus Magnus based upon the distinction of the universal idea or archetype in the mind of God existing or capable of existing in many individuals as a concept abstracted by the mind and compared with the individuals of which it can be predicated. (known beforehand) Inference (illation) - The reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of circumstential evidence and prior conclusions which could be more right than wrong, rather than on the basis of direct observation. Syllogism - (somewhat Aristotelian) Deductive reasoning in which logic/conclusion is derived from 2 premises as in "every virtue is laudable; kindness is a virtue; therefore kindness is laudable - that's Logical, to have kindness?". Entail = P entails Q means if P is true, Q must be true. Reasoning in form: If A and B, then C: If all cars have four wheels and that it's 4 wheel car, then that thing must be a car! Function of Logic: What is the function of logic - is it a short-hand version of everyday language, adopted sometimes in the interest of clarity ? In that case, I do not think it's very helpful to allow prepositions like "if P then P" into the fold. Such a move clearly departs from normal rational thinking. And it certainly should not be classed as "trivially true" which is how the logic books seem to rate it. It's not true and it's not false, so what is it ? None-sense ! Likewise, "If P then P" (though this is going into a different thread). As for whether the "if" is an "iff" in disguise, it's kinda tough to prove either way. And that is part of the problem. The bottom line may be that logic not only allows nonsensical premises but also rates as "true" the equally nonsensical conclusions derived thereby. This may also have implications for the process of assigning truth values in logic. Quantify - To render the logical quality of a term explicit. Formal Logic - The study of the properies of propositions & deductive reasoning by abstraction & analysis of the form rather than the content of the propositions under consideration, symbolic logic. Abstraction - Considering a concept without thinking of a specific example. - Fundamentally self conscious truth is reality ? You must find your own truth. - J. J. Rousseau (at times-Lubek) All sorts of Logic web: http://www.wordiq.com/cgi-bin/knowledge/lookup.cgi?title=Logic#Mathematical_logic ----------------------------- Ethics- Individual behavior of an character, including what it means to be a good person. The social rules that govern and limit our conduct, especially the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong which is morality. Possibly innate. Ethics were created by themselves to a certain extent and by humans so interaction in society is friendly and beneficial to all the parties. Morality - Refers to human conduct and values, what's right and wrong. Morals - Study of human behavior as consequences of beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad insofar as that behavior is useful or effective. In general, morals correspond to what actually is done right in society, group, culture. Mores - The accepted traditional customes, usages of particular social group, moral attitudes. Monad - A singular metaphysical entity from which material properties are said to derive. Bioethics 1971- A discipline dealing with the ethical implications of biological research and applications especially in medicine. Dialectic - The art or practice of arriving at the truth by the exchange of logicl arguments. Dialectics is possibly the greater Logic of synthesis and reconciliation and complements a philisophy of Ethics. Naturalism - Theory that everything belongs to the world of nature and can be studied by methods appropraite to studying that particular world. Phenomenology - The study of the development of human consciousness and self-awareness as a preface to philosophy or part of philosophy. - A philosophical movement that describes the formal structture of the objects of awareness and of awareness of itself in abstraction from existence. The structure of consciousness revealed, which includes an ego that exists absolutely, aimed to provide a sure foundation for knowledge, according to Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), who developed it. Phenomenalism - A theory that limits knowledge to phenomena only. A theory that all knowledge is based on or of phenomena and that what is construed to be a perception of material object is simply sense perception. Phenomena (plural of phenomenon) - A fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose cause or explanation is in question. - Anything known thru senses rather than thru thought or inntuition, as apprehended, analyzed by observer. - An unusual, significant or unaccountable fact or ocurrencce. Structuralism - Theory of humankind in which all elements of human culture including literature are thought to be parts of system of signs. Hegelianism - The philosophy of Hegel (1770-1831), an attemt to unite and harmonize (usually Greek) ontology with Kant's (1724-1804) philosophy. The Absolute Idea is flexible, bending, compromising. Ontology - The science of being or reality; the branch of knowledge that investigates the nature, relations of being, study of first principles of essential things, part of metaphysics. Deontology 1826 - The study of moral obligations. - The study of the nature of duty & obligation. - Deontology deals with ethix & morality, whats right or wrrong. Existentialism - A 20th-century philosophical movement chiefly in Europe; assumes that people are entirely free and thus responsible for what they make of themselves. Freedom to shape his/her life. - According to Sartre, father of existentialism, in his book 'Being and Nothingness,' he shows that the freedom of man can not be separated from the being of man. It's all in one; that human freedom precedes human existence, that consciousness of freedom means consciousness of our own possibilities and goals, that freedom is the basis for all human activity and that responsibility is simply the logical requirement of the consciousness of our freedom. Simply knowing: nations or individuals who dont follow/allow freedom, will stumble and fall, will go nowhere, will not last, sooner or later it will have its downfalls. Two things one needs in life to succeed: health & freedom. - Jan Paul Lubek Noumena - The intellectual conception of a thing as it is in itself, not as it is known through perception. Intelligence - How you apply knowledge/wisdom in any circumstances. - The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. Using the faaculty of thought & reason. Apodictic - Of a proposition; necessarily true or logically certain, absolute certainty. Emanation- The origination of the world by a series of hierarchically descending radiations from the Godhead through intermediate stages to matter. - The coming of Holy Spirit at the Pentecost. The fullfilmeent of time, 50 days. Language Philosophies: ------------------------- Hermeneutics - The pursuit of meaning followed specified principles of interpretation. Mostly understood in religion and philosophy. - Meaning of languages. Ordinary language Philosophy 1957- A trend in philosophical analysis that seeks to resolve philosophical perplexity by revealing sources of puzzlement in the misunderstanding of ordinary language. Semantic - Of or relating to the study of meaning and changes of meaning. Analytic(al) Philosophy 1936- A philosophical movement that seeks the solution of philosophical problems in the analysis of propositions or sentences - called also philosophical analysis. It maintains that philosophy is a logical analysis of concepts. Philosophy of Life 1853 (this is much earlier) - An overall vision of or attitude toward life and the purpose of life; how to achieve happy, rich, meaningful life for yourself, yours & others. (how things, situations work in life) Philosophical Psychology- Evident Principles of logic that evolve and associate into scientific systems of ethics. Scientific Philosophy - The science of what reality and universe is really all about, about bringing together the thoughts of people on the deeper meaning of our place in Reality. Human behavior, understanding and how to go about it. Natural Philosophy- (Associated with Science Natural, Physical science); Any of the sciences (as physics, chemistry, or biology) that deal with matter, energy, and their interrelations and transformations or with objectively measurable phenomena. ------------------------------------------------------------ Sikhism - A beliefe system which blends Hindu tradition with Islamic Monotheistic traditions. (India, Pakistan) Chromosome - A threadlike body in a cell nucleus that carries the genes in a linear order. Nucleus - A part of the cell containing dna and rna & responsible for growth and reproduction. (nuclei) Plasma - A fourt state of matter distinct from solid or liquid or gas and present in stars and fusion reactors. A gas becomes a plasma when it's heated until the atoms lose all their electrons leaving a highly electrified collection of nuclei and free electrons. (a form in between gas and liquid?) ----------------------- Ism - A belief (or system of beliefs) accepted as authoritative by some group or school. Aestheticism 1855- A doctrine that the principles of beauty are basic to other and especially moral principles, devotion to or emphasis on beauty or the cultivation of the arts. Anachronism - An error in chronology by which events are misplaced in regards to each others. Anarchism - The theory that all government is (an) evil. Proudhon (1809-65) Father of anarchis advocated a social organization based on common ownership and free agreements. At its worse, anarchism stands for a terroristis resistence to all present governmental and social order. Antagonism - Active opposition, resistance. Noumenon - The intellectual conception of a thing as it is in itself, not as it is known through perception. Materialism - Desering, living for wealth & material posessions with little interest in spiritual, ethical, moral matters, similar to hedonism. Hedonism 1856- The doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the sole or chief good in life. Epicureanism 1751- The philosophy of Epicurus who subscribed to a hedonistic ethics that considered of an imperturbable emotional calm the highest good and whose followers held intellectual pleasures superior to transient sensualism or temporary desire for sensual pleasures. Sensualism - Excessive devotion to sensual pleasures. Mechanism - Holds that natural phenomena can, should be explained by reference to matter, motion & its laws. Idealism 1796- (Ideal-A standard of beauty, excellence, perfection) A theory that ultimate reality lies in a realm transcending phenomena. Ideas are the only reality. Everything must be ideal (Berkeley). -A theory that the essential nature off reality lies in connsciousness or reason. -A theory that only the perceptible is real. -A theory that only mental states or entities are knowable.. - Lubek adds that Ideas are the backbone of everything thatt eventually becomes reality. Everything comes from an idea. Mannerism- A behavioral attribute that is distinctive & peculiar to an individual. Casuistry 1725- Moral philosophy based on the application of general ethical principles to resolve moral dilemmas. Aristotelianism- The philosophy of Aristotle that deals with logic, metaphysics, ethics, poetics, politics and natural science; "Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Western thought"). -It brought the doctrine of scholasticism. Panhellenism- The idea of, or movement or sympathy for political union of all Greeks, Panhellenic spirit, policies, etc... Hellenism- Imitation of ancient Greek thought or styles. Also, an approach to life that focuses on the growth and development of the intellect. "Hellenism" is sometimes used to refer to the belief that reason can be applied to examine all human experience. A cogent discussion of Hellenism can be found in Matthew Arnold's Culture and Anarchy. Scholasticism 1782- A philosophical movement dominant in western Christian civilization of the Middle ages & Early Renaissance from 9th until the 17th century and combining religious dogma with the mystical and intuitional tradition of patristic philosophy (dogmas/writing of early Christian father) especially of Saint Augustine and later with Aristotelianism. (of or relating to the church fathers or their writings). The system of logic, metaphysics, theology, etc... Expouned chiefly by Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus & epecially by Thomas Aquinas (reason & faith). At its highest point it was intellectualistic & grounded on Aristotelianism. Political Philosophy: ----------------------- Individualism 1827- A doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be ethically paramount; The conception that all values, rights, and duties originate in individuals; A theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative, action, and interests. A conduct or practice guided by such a theory. Doctrine - Believe, principles accepted as very true, authoritarian accepted by groups. Totalitarianism 1926- Centralized control by an autocratic authority. - The political concept that the citizen (subject) should bbe totally subject to an absolute state authority. Consequentialism - the view that the value of an action derives solely from the value of its consequences. Elitism - The doctrine that elite classes, superior people & establishments are to have a final say, to be in charge and above everybody else (peasants). Pelagianism - Following of Pelagius, (around 540) a british monk, who denied original sin and held that there is no original sin and (unfortunately) men have perfect freedom of will. -------------------------------------------- Relativism 1865- A theory that knowledge is relative to the limited nature of the mind and the conditions of knowing; view that ethical truths depend on the individuals and groups (societies, traditions) holding them true but changing them over time with new ideas, concepts, etc. - The concept that a cultural system can be viewed only in terms of principles, background, frame of reference and history that characterize it. Relative - comparison to something else. - The doctrine that knowledge, truth and morality exist in relation to culture, society or historical context and are not absolute just like truth where only one person could be right and whole world wrong as proven by Jan Pawel (Paul) Lary Lubek: encyclopediasupreme.org/Philosophy/Majority.txt Moral Subjectivism- Theory that the truth of moral statements is relative to individuals. Moral Relativism- Theory that the truth or falsity of moral statements is relative to some individual or group. Relativism about Truth- Theory that truth is relative to a group, place, time. Frame of Reference- The sum of a person's knowledge, experience, goals, values, attitudes. Etymology - The origin or derivation of a word; points how, from where the word based, as shown by its analysis into elements. (etymon - true, real - Gr) Subjectivism- Theory that the truth of moral statements is relative to individuals. The doctrine that the supreme good is the realization of some type of subjective experience or feeling. The doctrine that individual feeling or apprehension is the ultimate (not so) criterion of the good and the right. Passivism - The doctrine that all violence in unjustifiable. Optimism - A general disposition to expect the best in all things, that all will turn out well. Meliorism - The belief that the world can be made better by human effort. ---------------------------------------------- Truth: (By Lubek) -------- Truth has no special time of its own. Its hour is now - always. - Albert Schweitzer, 1875-1965. - The First thing to go astray in war or in any life strugggle is the truth and the blame being put on somebody else. Excuses, Lies, Excuses, Lies, Excuses... - Truth consists in or as part of a given society an indiviidual belongs to... especially if he/she and the majority agree and practice it. (could be wrong) (Ethnic Relativism) - Truth is what corresponds to facts in reality, not alwayss whatever that "works". - Truth is conformity to reality, actuality. The right trutth, right time? - Truth consists of truth in any given time, true is truth and it is relevant when it disintegrates other statements, attacks and counter-attacks on the truth over time, if it survives and still it's true to itself over time and to the masses, than it must be true. Then again, like I said... The whole world may be incorrect and only one person correct and if over time it gets support and backing... That proves my points. It counter attacks. - What is the truth, what is the reality, what is free willl ? What's true today, may not be true or valid tomorrow. Ideas and beliefs create new ideas and beliefs based on the current and past ideas and beliefs. They crete new truths, beliefs and ideas. And the truth and reality is based on an individual. - What is truth and justice ? If you were born to a particular culture, tradition, whatever they thought them and whatever their unbringing was, that is the only relevant truth to you. And what others say or what other nations want them to do, telling them they are wrong, radical, conservative, liberal will not convince them they are wrong. (possibly because they are so blinded in their ignorance and foolishness) Only if the majority is convinced and with passage of time, if consequences of their action leaves them poorer and broken down, they may realize their way of living is wrong. Still, others should look at themselves and imagine what those they attack think of them and look at them in return, it seems to me both are weird, strange, different and possibly unacceptable to each other. That's where respect and understanding must come into the game, as I wrote about it before. - Truth must be true when it's self evident, proven, understood and can not be contradicted/countered by false logic or reason(ing), hypocricy, cynicism. Truth could be stable, but it could fluctuate, it could be relative. Truth is constant, if it's persistent in nature and unvarying in occurance, unwaving over time. - Lubek Cynicism - An attitude of scornful negativity, ignorance, a person whose outlook is scornfully & habitually negative. - Strangely, a member of sect of ancient Greek philosopherss who believed virtue to be the only good and self control to be the only means of achieving virtue. -------------------------------------------------------- Correspondence Theory of Truth - Truth theory which claims that if something corresponds with the masses and positive approval of the majority or that it connects with something else and agrees with each other, it must be true. Something must eventually be either true or false. Truth corresponds to reality. Thus, the sum of all facts corresponds to that which is true about ultimate reality, assuming it's a reality. The correspondence theory is often traced back to Aristotle's well-known definition of truth: To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false, while to say of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not, is true! Council of Trent- A council of the Roman Catholic Church convened in Trent in three sessions between 1545 and 1563 to examine and condemn the teachings of Martin Luther and other Protestant reformers; redefined the Roman Catholic doctrine and abolished various ecclesiastical abuses and strengthened the papacy. Ecclesiastical - Relating to the Christian Church or its clergy. - Matters of the church. Metaphysics- The system of principles underlying a particular study or subject of philosophy. - The theory that limits knowledge to conscious states & ellements. Eschatology- Branch of philosophy dealing with death, final things. A consideration of the facts pertaining to last things including the return of Christ, the Great Tribulation, the Millennial Kingdom, the resurrection, the future judgments and eternal outcome of both the just and the unjust, the ultimate destiny. Hagiography - The writings of the lives of saints or venerated persons. Ethnocentrism 1899- Characterized by or based on the attitude that one's own group is superior. Ethical Relativism- A function of what a particular society happens to believe. Theory of what is right, is determined by what particular culture says is right. It changes over time thus is prone to errors. - Lubek Theology- The study of religious faith, practice, and experience; especially: The study of God and of God's relation to the world. Theodicy- Defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view of the existence of evil. -Evil is used by God for the purpose of creating some good outcome!? -Lubek -There is nothing evil or bad that good will not come out ffrom it?! -Santa Wanda Nida Pluralism 1818- The holding of two or more offices or positions (as benefices) at the same time. A theory that there are more than one or more than two kinds of ultimate reality. A theory that reality is composed of a plurality of entities. - A state of society in which members of diiverse ethnic, racial, religious, or social groups maintain an autonomous participation in and development of their traditional culture or special interest within the confines of a common civilization. Ethos 1851- The distinguishing character, sentiment, moral nature, or guiding beliefs of a person, group, or institution. In anthropology, the distinctive spirit of a culture or an era. Personalism- The dominance of a charismatic personality in the political life of a nation. Loyalty is to a political leader rather than to institutions, organizations, or ideals. Scruples- Motivation driving logically from ethical or moral principles that govern person's thoughts, actions. Moral Philosophy 1606- The study of human conduct, values, principles, good and bad, right and wrong. Values are worthy things, noble in nature, rare, precious and good. Radicalism - Of or relating to the origin, root, fundamental. Nihilism 1817- A viewpoint that traditional values and beliefs are unfounded and that existence is senseless and useless, a doctrine that denies any objective ground of truth and especially of moral truths. Moral Nihilism - Theory that no moral statements are objectively true or false. Aphorism - A concise, short statement of a principle. Epistemology 1856- The study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity. The study of what ie ment by knowledge. What does it mean to Know something as opposite to merely having an opinion. An issue at the core of Western philosophy, before Socrates, since/until it has been answered, all other questions become unsolvable and unimportant. Know thyself, know the opposite & positive! -LJ Sophism 500 B.C.- Using wrong arguments with conviction and reasoning to fool & use somebody. Somebody skilled in elaborate and devious argumentation. Usually dangerous philosophy, lifestyle, atrotious and cunning in reasoning. Sophists invented moral loopholes to excuse themselves or others out of necessary obligations they did not like, creating immoral behavior. Plato/Socrates characterized them as superficial manipulators of planned rhetoric and dialectic skill using it delibaretely as social device for maintaining certain order. If there are no consequences to immoral behavior then there is no motivational pressure for morality. -Socrates opposed the sophists, arguing that there are absoolute, transcultural standards of right & wrong, good & bad, virtues they did not follow. He argued that once we recognize what is truly good, we will act in accord with that knowledge, hence his claim that virtues are part of knowledge are realistic. Stoicism 1626- A member of a school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium about 300 B.C. holding that the wise man should be free from passion, unmoved by joy or grief, and submissive to natural law, one apparently or professedly indifferent to pleasure or pain. Similar to: Machiavelianism (similar to Utilitarianism view) - Pertaining to Florentine statesman/philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527; His political philosophy: End justifies means, maintaining emotional distance. -The doctrine that any means, however unscrupulous, may be justifiably employed by a ruler/king in order to maintain strong central government. Ruler must be strong and secure at the expense of the little people, but enslaving people will sooner or later create rebellion and king with entourage will be overthrown, sooner or later. Peasants hated emperor Qin who had everything but lost his soul by accidental poisoning when he was searching for the liquer of immortality with immorality. - Lubek) Unilateralism - The doctrine that nations should conduct their foreign affairs individualistically without the advice or involvement of other nations. Utilitarianism 1827- A doctrine that the useful is the good and that the right conduct should be the usefulness of its consequences (consequentialism); specifically: a theory that the aim of action should be the largest possible balance of pleasure over pain or the greatest happiness of the greatest number. -Doctrine that the useful is the good; especially as elaborrated by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill; the aim was said to be the greatest happiness for the greatest number (as in "it's 'ok' if few suffer or die for the greater benefit of the masses", that is controversial). Natural Law- A rule or body of rules of conduct inherent in human nature and essential to or binding upon human society. Positivism- The form of empiricism that bases all knowledge on perceptual experience, not on intuition or revelation. Negativism - Negativity, characterized by habitual skepticism, disagreeable tendency to deny, oppose or resist suggestion or comments. Bergonism - 1900's - By French Henri Bergon. Theory of representing the world as a process of "creative evolution" in which the novelty of the successive phenomena is the significant fact. Altruism 1853- Unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others. (Opposite of Egoism) Esoteric - Confined to and understandable by only an enlightened inner circle. Hidden, deeper knowledge, teachings that are possessed or understood only by few who have special knowledge or interest in the subject(s). Functionalism 1914 - Any doctrine that stresses utility or purpose. Theosophy - Teaching about God and the world based on mystical insight. Set of occult beliefs rejecting Judeo-Christian revelation and theology, often incorporating elements of buddhism and hinduism and held to be based on a special mystical insight or superior speculation. Plutocrat - A person whose power derives from their wealth, like jack ass, israel's another american puppet donald trump. Ethics- The discipline dealing with what is good and bad emphasizing on moral duty and obligation, a set of moral principles or values. Major difference in the approach to ethical problems revolves around the question of absolute good as opposed to relative good. Throughout the history of philosophy thinkers have sought an absolute criterion of ethics. Frequently moral codes have been based on religious absolutes/directives. Immanuel Kant, in his categorical imperative, attempted to establish an ethical criterion independent of theological considerations. Act in such a way as you would that you would want all to act. As in the teaching of Jesus' Golden Rule and similarly with Confucius. Rationalists (Plato, Baruch Spinoza, Josiah Royce ) founded their ethics on a metaphysics. All varying methods of building an ethical system pose the question of the degree to which morality is authoritative (i.e. imposed by a power outside the individual). If the criterion of morality is the welfare of the state (George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), the state is supreme arbiter. If the authority is a religion then that religion is the ethical teacher. Hedonism which equates the good with pleasure in its various forms, finds its ethical criterion either in the good of the individual or the good of the group. An egoistic hedonism (by philosophers Aristippus, Epicurus, Julien de La Mettrie, Thomas Hobbes) views the good of the individual as the ultimate consideration. A universalistic hedonism, such as utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, James Mill) finds the ethical criterion in the greatest good for the greatest number. Among ethical theories debated in the first half of the 20th cennsiderations are merely expressions of the subjective desires of the individual; and intuitionism (G. E. Moore ) which postulates an immediate awareness of the morally good. Agreeing with Moore that the morally good is directly apprehended through intuition, deontological intuitionists (H. A. Prichard, W. D. Ross) went on to distinguish between good and right and to argue that moral obligations are intrinsically compelling whether or not their fulfillment results in some greater good. Important ethical theories since the mid 20th centry have included the prescriptivism of R. M. Hare, who has compared moral precepts to commands, a crucial difference between them being that moral precepts can be universally applied. In his arguments for virtue ethics, Alasdair C. MacIntyre has cautioned against unbridled individualism and advocated correctives drawn from Aristotle's discussion of moral virtue as the means between extremes. Thomas Nagel has held that, in moral decision making, reason supersedes desire, so that it becomes rational to choose altruism over a narrowly defined self-interest. Ethics has developed as people have reflected on the intentions and consequences of their acts. From this reflection on the nature of human behavior, theories of conscience have developed giving direction to much ethical thinking. Intuitionists (Ralph Cudworth, Samuel Clarke), moral-sense theorists (the 3d earl of Shaftesbury, Francis Hutcheson) and sentimentalists (J. J. Rousseau, Pierre-Simon Ballanche) postulated an innate moral sense, which serves as the ground of ethical decision. Empiricists (John Locke, Claude Helv‚tius, John Stuart Mill) deny any such innate principle and consider conscience a power of discrimination acquired by experience. In the one case conscience is the originator of moral behavior and in the other it is the result of moralizing. Between these extremes there have been many compromises. Cartesianism, Cartesian Epistemological, Metaphysical Principles: -'Cognito, Ergo Sum. I think, therefore I am/exist'. Mathematical certitude in metaphysical demonstrations, which emphasizes the distinction between thought and extention (mind and matter like in psychology, distinction between heredity and learning in upbringing); separate, yet indirectly integrated. It's dualism, does not directly identify mind with brain as substance, conceived as physical mechanism (but they should not be categorized under 2 separate entities, they relate to each other, thus they are intertwined mechanisms, like body & soul -LJL-). Kantianism - Of pertaining to, based upon a priori elements in experiences which condition human knowledge, they transcend experience. Means & Ends- May be referenced to a person or a thing of any sort, as an instrument, a tool of carrying out someone's intentions; How result it obtained or an end achieved, instrument used to produce an end. AGENT implies a person, or sometimes a thing, acting to achieve the ends conceived by another's agency, the activity or operation of a person or thing which serves as a cause producing an effect; MEDIUM implies the means by which something is conveyed, transimmted, communicated. Do the ends justify the means and vice versa ? Only in critical and life saving urgent situations ? In reaching the end, empahis is on evaluating the means value... Popular opininon could be wrong if that opinion was lightly taken by the masses and not properly investigated or heard from just one source. If means are greater than ends (Iraq 2003) then it is not justified. Is it worth it and does it challenge ethics, values and principles, culture, traditions, does it impose will on somebody else ? In moral reasoning, an igorant/undisciplined, self deceiving thinker runs the risk of rationalizing misconduct and accepting it as the only truth. Why ? Either they were born into ignorance or were associated with ignorance, like tha parable of the cave, the inhabitants only know the darkness, they know its shades are they think its their only reality. Impartiality is the key when it comes to understanding means and ends. - Lubek Heraclitus - (535-475) He held that the knowledge is based on sense perceptions and wisdom consists in recognizing the intelligence that guides the universe. Socratic irony- Pretended ignorance or willingness to learn from others assumed for the sake of making their errors conspicious by means of adroit, tricky, twisted questions. Socratic method- The method of instruction used by Socrates, consisting of questioning the object of which is to elicit a consistant expression of something supposed to be implicitly known by all rational beings, replyin in question. Otherwise, if not knowing, individual looks bad, shallow. Platonism- The philosophy of Plato stressing especially that actual things are copies of transcendent ideas and that these ideas are the objects of true knowledge and that they can be apprehended by an innate power of the soul, called reminiscence. That the unversals exist independently of particulars. Platonism is considered to be the predominant philosophy regarding Foundations of Mathematics. Mathematics is not created but discovered or how much is it (-LJ-)? Platonism is characterized by its method of abstracting the finite world of Forms (humans,animals,objects) from the infinite world of the Neoplatonism, in the finite world and human experience. NeoPlatonism (3rd century)- Philosophy of early Christian era who endeavored to reconcile the teachings of Plato and Aristotle with oriental, eastern philosophy conceptions. Plotinus (no relations but his follower) is considered first to use it. Neoplatonism is more religious based than Platonism. It seeks to overcome the Platonic concepts between thought and reality, Ideal and Form. -A system of philosophical and theological doctrines compossed of elements of Platonism and Aristotelianism and oriental mysticism; its most distinctive doctrine holds that the first principle and source of reality transcends being and thought and is naturally unknowable. -Neoplatonism was predominant in pagan Europe until the 6thh century"; "Neoplatonism was a major influence on early Christian writers and on later medieval and Renaissance thought and on Islamic philosophy. Platonic Idealism (Ideal/Forms=Thought&Reality)- (According to Hagel, ideas are the only truth/reality) The theory that the substantive reality around us is only a reflection of a higher truth. That truth Plato argues is Abstraction (withdrawal from the worldly objects, from the norm, normal) A particular tree, with a branch or two missing, possibly alive or with names of two people carved in its bark is distinct from the concept of a untouched tree. A tree is the ideal that each of us holds that allows us to identify the imperfect reflections of trees (world) around us. -According to Socrates: Since different human beings are unnequal in virtues, virtue must be something that varies among them, he argues, but desire for one believes to be good is perfectly universal. Since most of the humans knowingly do not desire what is bad, differences in their conduct must be a consequence of differences in what they know. Knowing what is right automatically (not really) results in the desire to do it. Platonic love- Fully Understood Love, according to Plato and Socrates, ascending from passion for the individual to contemplation of the ideal. - A spritual comradeship or love, esp. between persons of oopposite & same sex, in which there is assumed to be no element of sexual desire; - a use originating with late Renessaince writers. - Plato's theory of the soul is the origin of his theory off the state. In it he claims that the only happy person is the just person, or the person who is ruled by reason (and morals-LJL). Morality is necessary cause of happiness, one's happiness is linked to one's mora behavior. Even immoral could be motivated to be moral in order to be happy. Avicennism - 1100's Arabic philosophy very similar to that in the west based on aristotelian philosophy and neoplatonism. Based on Avicenna (980-1037) who founded the Muslim Aristotelian thought. (He also worked later on Oriental philosophy but all thos works have been lost, also wrote a book on directives, thoughts and remarks) He is noted for his contributions in the fields of the Aristotelian philosophy and medicine. His writing influenced St. Thomas Aquinas. In medicine his book 'Canon' became the medical authority for several centuries and Avicenna enjoyed an undispited place of honor equalled only by early Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen. The book was translated into Latin in the 12th century and was popular all over the West. His 'Kitabashshifa' is probably the largest work of its kind every written by one man. It treats of logic, the natural sciences, including psychology, quadrivium (geometry, arithemtic, music, atronomy) and metaphysics. His thought, blended with St. Augustine, the Christian philosopher and theologian, was a basic ingredient in the thought of many medieval Scholastics, especially in the Franciscan schools. In the east he dominated influence in medicine, philosophy and theology. It has lasted over the ages and is still alive in the circles of Islamic thought. -Avicennism is a system of thought and thus of life which rests on the conception of God as the necessary existent; in God alone, essence (nature) coincides. There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as result of His self-knowledge ?! ------------------------------------------ Populism - Political philosophy seeking the instruments of the state to benefit people as whole. Nominalism 1844- 1. A theory that there are no universal essences in reality and that the mind can frame no single concept or image corresponding to any universal or general term. -The theory that only individuals and no abstract entities (as essences, classes, or propositions) exist. Predicate - is a term in logic used in single case, namely, when we affirm one thing of another. Predicate (foundation or base) as to predicate argument or certain principles. Scientific Realism - Truth theory that consists and corresponds with scientific reality, what science proves and something that is accepted by the majority. Objectivism- Any of certain theories stressing the objective reality as distinguished from the purely subjective existence (or experience) of the phenomenal world, of moral good or the like. - Doctrine holding that all reality is objective & externall to the mind & that knowledge is reliably based on observed objects + events. Subjectivism- The teaching that the individual is the source and judge of all religious knowledge based upon his own knowledge and experience. Moral nonobjectivism- Theory that no moral statements are objectively true or false. Moral objectivism- Theory that moral statements cane be objectively true or false. Noncontingent statement- Statement that is either necessarily true or necessarily false. Physicalism - Theory that people are purely physical. Reasons - Considerations that justify a belief. Ideology - An orientation that characterizes the thinking of a group or nation. Self Esteem - A confidence and satisfaction in oneself, pride in one's work. Self Actualization (Fullfilment) - Comes after Self Esteem, to realize fully one's potential. Quest to become best you can be, deciding what you want from life and then doing what is necesarry to get what you want. -Desire for self - fulfillment; to become everything one iss/can be. Theism - Belief in the existence of one God, as creator of universe, intervening in it & sustaining a personal relation to his creatures. Deism - Belief in the existence of a supreme being, the creator who does not intervene in the universe. Polytheism - Belief in many gods. Animism- The belief that all objects possess a natural life or vitality or are endowed with indwelling souls; a: Belief ascribing conscious life to all natural objects or to nature in general; b: Belief that men, animals, plants, stones etc... are inhibited by souls which may exist in separate state. Averroism- A system of thought and action that rejects individual immortality and individual responsibility, by teaching that there is only one rational soul for all men. (The doctrines of Arab philosopher Averroes 1126-1198) Reincarnationism - (Dominant In eastern philosophy) A doctrine that on the death of the body the soul migrates to or is born again in another body. Universal Principle - Principle which applies to everyone, anything or particular. Consciousness- is perceiving the world, how, in what way, based on current events, truth or false truth, if we are really conscious, meaning we know the power of situation and our surroundings and that we are not tricked or even provoked to act on something or believe. Monism - The doctrine that there is only one kind of substance or ultimate reality as mind or matter. The doctrine that reality is one unitary organic whole with no independent parts, that reality concists of single basic substance. Spinozism - There is one infinite substance (God or nature), having infinite substance/attributes of which only thought & some extension are knowable. -Spinoza & Leibniz, Moral Political Philosophy Appolinarianism- Apollinarianism was the heresy taught by Apollinaris the Younger, bishop of Laodicea in Syria about 361. He taught that the Logos of God, (mind) which became the divine nature of Christ, took the place of the rational human soul of Jesus and that the body of Christ was a glorified form of human nature. In other words, though Jesus was a man, He did not have a human mind but that the mind of Christ was solely divine (which seems to be true, because it was (fully) influenced by the Holy Spirit -LJ-) Manichaism - Superficial elememts of Christianity, Dual principle of creation, one comes from God and other from an agnostic power, or satan (or evolution -LJ-). Man's spirit is from God and body from satan (St Ambrose, St Augustine are antagonists against this belief and against monothelitism). Manichean - Believe in religious or philosophical dualism. It originated in Persia in 3rd century AD and thought the release of the spirit from matter thru strict self denial. Based on prophet Mani from around 250 AD, based on zoroastrian tradition. It incorporates elements of christianity, hinduism, buddhism and other faiths. Mani saw himself as a great religious teacher akin to Buddha and Jesus. Docetism - An opinion especially associated with the gnostics that Jesus had no human body & only appeared to have died on the corner. Nestorian - (prelude to Monophysitism) An adherent of Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinopole, condemned heretic by the council of Ephesus in 431. Patriarch Nestorius maintained that in Jesus, a devine person (logos) human person were joined in perfect harmony of action but not in the unity of a single individual (monotheitism lacking). Nestorianism states that the two natures of Christ were so separated from each other that they were "not in contact;" the problem here is that worship of the human Jesus would then not be allowed. Monophysitism - A heresy which arose in the fifth century concerning the two Natures of Christ. The monophysites accepted only the Divine Nature of Christ and were condemned as heretics by the Fourth Ecumenical Council; thus Copts denomination was officially created - "cut off from the main body." Coptics are the Oriental churches of the East which were separated from the Orthodox Church after the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon (449-451 AD). for following the false teachings of Monophysitism. The split was already evident after the Council of Nicea (325). Third one was in 431, delt with nestorianism. Monothelitism - A heresy of the seventh century, which developed in an attempt to reconcile the monophysites with the Orthodox. The monothelites accept the two Natures of Christ, but deny His human will (Thelesis), accepting thereby only his Divine. Agnosticism - A denial of the ultimate knowledge of the existence of God; the disbelief in any claims of ultimate knowledge, religious orientation of doubt. Socinian- An adherent of the teachings of Socinus; A self proclaimed 'christian' who rejects the divinity of Christ and the Trinity and original sin. Theosophism- Alleged knowledge of God and of the world as related to God obtained by direct mystical insight or philosophical speculation or by both. The doctrine and belief of a modern school of thought (or some sect following), in the main Buddhistic and Brahmanic theories in teaching a pantheistic evolution and the doctrine of reincarnation. Pantheism- The doctrine that the universe taken or conceived as a whole, is God; the doctrine that there is no God per se but the combined forces and laws which are manifested in the existing universe. States that God is universe and universe is God. Contrary to Isaiah 44:24, God is creator of universe and therefore separate from his creation (transcedental). Zoroastrianism - The religious system founded by Zoroaster, Parsis religion, (now iranian land) in 6th century BC, It follows worshipping of fire, sun. Teaches the worship of Ahura Mazda (their god) in the context of a universal struggle between the forces of light and of darkness. Double Zoroast - (persian belief, both not valid from the start) Logos - The incarnate word of God, Jesus, second Person in the Trinity, The Divine word of God. Reincarnationism - ( Dominant In eastern philosophy) A doctrine that on the death of the body the soul migrates to or is born again in another body. Schism - Division of a group into opposing factions. Hereticism - To hold unorthodox opinion in any field, not merely religion. Donatism - Christian schism religion, in northern Africa from the 4th to the 7th century held belief that only those who led a blameless life belonged in the church or could administer sacraments. Ascetism - The doctrine that thru renunciation of worldly leasures it is possible to achieve high spiritual or intellectual state. Arianism - Heretical doctrine taught by Arius (4th century) that asserted radical primacy of the Father over the Son, denying that Christ is one substance with the Father. Jansenism - Salvation is limited to those who are subject to supernatural determinism & the rest are assigned to hell. According to Cornelis Jansen, it's predestination, no free will, human nature is incapable of good aka heretical view. - It seems human nature is never capable of real lasting goood! -Lubek Determinism - Any doctrine that acts of the will, social changes, results from determined causes. A belief that everything is caused; every act is caused by something, there is no real free will. Fatalism- Mental attitude (both in phi + psy) resulting from acceptance of doctrine that everything that hapens is predetermined, inevitable, ment to happen, to be. Soteriology - The theology of salvation. Nepotism- Favorism shown to friends or family/relatives especially by those in power. Fideism - Holds that religious beliefs can not be justified by rational means but only through faith. Quietism - 17th century movement emphasizing complete passivity and the prayer of quiet before God. The ideal is to abandon all desires, even for virtue, love of Christ, or salvation, acts of devotion and simply rest in the presence of God. Pope Innocent XI condemned Quietism and Molinos' writings on Nov 19 1687. ------------------------------------------------- Teaching Philosophy: (In the words of Paulo Freire + some of my own) / OTHER STUFF: Respect for the autonomy and dignity of every person is an ethical imperative and not a favor that we may or may not concede to each other. It is precisely because we are ethical beings that we can commit what can only be called a transgression by denying our essentially ethical condition. The teacher who does not respect the students' curiosity in its diverse, aesthetic, linguistic and syntactical expressions; who uses irony to put down legitimate questioning; who is not respectfully present in the educational experiment of the student, transgresses fundamental ethical principles of a teacher and of the human condition. It is in this sense that both the authoritarian teacher who suffocates the natural curiosity and freedom of the student as well as the teacher who imposes no standards at all are equally disrespectful of essential characteristics of our human conduct, character and standards. - Therefore it is essential that the teacher is a good example not just by word but by deed and need, respect and understanding/tolerance for others. It must be practiced by the teacher in the classroom, modeling it in life and actions, which translates thru to the students. -------------------------------------------------- Dogma - Implies a doctrine that is laid down as true and beyond dispute. A doctrine or body of doctrines of theology and religion formally stated and (authoratitively) proclaimed by the church/sect/pope... Dogmatic- Asserting a matter of opinion as if it were absolute fact, positive in manner of utterance (positiviness when unwarranted or warranted). Doctrine - That which is taught, principles in any branch of knowledge. It implies acceptance of a principle as taught by a body of believers or of adherents of philosophy, school, system, methods, ways. Double Effect - Intended good moral consequences, unintended side effects, controversial (lasting) consequences. ----------------------------------------------- Hobbesian - Stresses the only way to secure civil society is thru universal submission to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Egalitarianism - The doctrine that moral and political life should be aimed at respecting and advancing the equality for all people in everything. Novatianism - Heretical view that lapsis Christian (traitors) could not be accepted in early Christianity back into community with the church. Patronalism - Relation between government & governed, involving care & control suggestive of those followed by father, e.g. american idiotic, unwinnable wars in Philippines 1899-1913, Iraq II, Afghanistan etc... Vicious Circle (of life) - Argument or definition which is valueless because it assumes as true or understood something which is to be proved or defined. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Philosophical Grammar: Cynic - An adherent of an ancient Greek school of philosophers who held the view that virtue is the only good and that its essence lies in self-control and independence. - A fault finding captious critic, one who believes that huuman conduct is motivated wholly by self-interest. Cynycism - Believing the worse of human nature and motives. Ironic - Implies an attempt to be amusing or provocative by saying usually the opposite of what is meant. (made the ironic observation that the government could always be trusted) Sarcastic - Implies an intentional inflicting of pain by deriding, taunting, or ridiculing (a critic famous for his sarcastic remarks). Realpolitik - Practical politics; often, cynically, reliance upon armed strength for gaining one's ends in national or international affairs, ignoring what others think and the reality of things but only praising your own politics and ideas as the only correct ones. Maxim/Axiom - A saying that is widely accepted on its own merits, a statement of self evident truth. In Logic - a proposition that is not susceptible of proof or disproof; its truth is assumed to be self-evident, given. Axiomatic truth - self evident, no need for proof or arguments (except for hypocrites/ignorants). Axiomatic - Fundamental facts upon which other concepts are constructed, evident without proof or argument. Sardonic - disdainfully humourous, Implies scorn, mockery or derision that is manifested by either verbal or facial expression (surveyed the scene with a sardonic smile). Oxymoron - A combination of contradictory or incongruous words (cruel justice) (oxymoronic - adjective, oxymoranically - adverb). Simile - A figure of speech comparing 2 unlike things that is ofen introduced by like or as (as in cheeks like roses). Metaphor - A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denotes one kind of object or idea, when it's used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. -Allegory represents literal and symbolic reality. Euphemism - The substitution of inoffensive or mild expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. Passing away for dying. Paradox - A statement that contradicts itself. "I always lie" is a paradox, because if it is true, it must be false. (I guess, you can't always lie on the lie) The paradox:' standing is more tiring that walking.' A statement contrary to accepted opinion. Hypocrytical - Professing feelings, beliefs or virtues one does not have. To denounce another for carrying out some action whilst carrying out the same action oneself and then critisizing the others for it, like Bush and Blair 2003, Olmert 2006 (classic Hypocrites). Prescriptivism - An ethics doctrine holding that moral statements prescribe appropriate attitudes and behavior. Prolegomena 1652 - A formal essay or critical discussion serving to introduce and interpret an extended work. Idiomatic - Characteristics in manner of speech of certain language. Logical Terms/Language Logic Philosophy: ------------------------------------------------------- Enlightenment 1669- A philosophic movement of the 18th century marked by a rejection of traditional social, religious, and political ideas and an emphasis on rationalism. Rationalism- Doctrine that knowledge is acquired by reason, thinking, observation without experience (Socrates, Plato). Empiricism 1657- Doctrine that all knowledge originates in experience (as opposite to rationalism), without the aid of science or theory. -Experience, especially the senses are the only sources of knowledge. All beliefs about the world come from perceptual experience. -Deriving facts from observation and study. Empiricists may believe that pleasure is the highest good and the world happened by the chance of molecular/atomic combinations. Similar to: Proposition- In Logic, a statement that affirms or denies something and is either true or false. Premise- A statement that is assumed to be true and from which a conclusion can be drawn. In Verb: Preexisting, set beforehand, often as an explanation. 'He premised remarks so that his readers migh understand.' A Priori - (deductive reasoning) is known purely thru reason. Relating to or derived by reasoning from self-evident propositions, presupposed by experience, being without examination or analysis like when Socrates asked random child to draw circle in the sand and line across to represent the middle and it was done without problems/hesitation. -Comes from knowing or assumed cause. A Posteriori - (inductive reasoning) determined thru empirical evidence. Relating to or derived by reasoning from observed facts. -Derived by conclusion; from effects to cause, from facts tto principles. Induction- Making a generalization about everything based on observation. Deduction- Making a generalization about everything based on form, laws, rules = experience. Deductive Reasoning- Deals with form not content. How logic and arguments link up. DR works from the more general to the more specific. It is more narrow in nature & is concerned with testing or confirming hypothesis. Inductive Reasoning- Deals with content. Both reasonings inquire into the truth. DR works from specific to broader generaliztion. Both reasonings contribute to proper and truthful conclusions. It is more open-ended & exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive Argument- An argument or statement in which conclusion is supposed to follow from the premises in such a way that it would be self contradicting to assert the premises and deny the conclusion. - A deductive argument is intended to meet the criteria of validity. - To Infer is to Deduce. Inductive Argument- Even if the premises are true, the conclusion can still be false. (Theories are based on inductive conclusions, may be but all things are subject to change - Lubek) Inductively Strong Argument- The conclusion of an inductively strong argument is most likely true if all its premises are true. Many people distinguish between two basic kinds of argument: inductive and deductive. Induction is usually described as moving from the specific to the general, while deduction begins with the general and ends with the specific; arguments based on experience or observation are best expressed inductively, while arguments based on laws, rules or other widely accepted principles are best expressed deductively. Consider the following example: Jan: I've noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it comes back down, so I guess next time when I kick it up, it will come back down, too. Lubek: That's Newton's Law. Everything that goes up must come down. And so, if you kick the ball up, it must come down. Jan is using inductive reasoning, arguing from observation while Lubek is using deductive reasoning, arguing from the law of gravity. Lubek's argument is clearly from the general (the law of gravity) to the specific (this kick); Jan's argument may be less obvious from the specific (in instance where he has observed balls being kicked up and coming back down) to the general (the prediction that a similar event will result in a similar outcome in the future) because he has stated it in terms only of the next similar event. Physics - The science of matter & energy & their interactions. Chemistry- Branch of Natural Science (Humanities) dealing with composition of substances, their properties & reactions. Gravity - The force of attraction between all masses in the universe, especially the attraction of earth's mass for bodies near the surface. Curvature of space and time around globe's orbit. (-Lubek) That which is most possible, happens most often. That which is least possible happens least often in life, everywhere, possibly except in subatomic universe & multiverse, in space-time continuum -Lubek! -------------------------------------------------------------------------- DIGNUM LAUDE VIRUM MUSA VETAT MORI (Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus)! Goddess Musa does not allow the praise deserving people to die. (-Ms. Wanda Nida) Musa was ancient Greek goddess, protector of art, science, unhypocritical educated people. All By: Mr. L.J.L. - Jan Paul Lubek, BD, Phd From 1988 to Present; ALL RIGHTS RESERVED !!!